兼爱 (Jiān'ài), translated as "universal love" or "impartial care," is the cornerstone of Mohist philosophy. It advocates for treating all individuals equally, regardless of personal or familial relationships. Mozi (墨子), the founder of Mohism, critiqued Confucian partiality—favoring one's family or close relations—and argued that such favoritism led to conflict, social division, and war. Instead, Mozi believed universal care would promote peace, mutual benefit, and societal harmony.
Unlike the Western concept of "universal love," which often carries emotional or spiritual connotations, Jiān'ài is pragmatic and utilitarian. It emphasizes practical actions to prevent harm and maximize collective benefit. For example, one should aid others not because of personal affection but because doing so ensures reciprocal care and societal stability.
Jiān'ài arose during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), a time of constant warfare and political instability in China. Mozi observed that partiality—whether through familial favoritism or loyalty to specific states—led to wars and societal suffering. His call for universal love was both a moral and practical solution to these challenges.
However, the principle of Jiān'ài was often criticized as too idealistic and difficult to implement in a hierarchical and relational society like ancient China. Confucians, for example, dismissed it as impractical, arguing that familial bonds are the foundation of social order.
In modern China, Jiān'ài is appreciated as a historical philosophical ideal but is rarely implemented as a governing principle. The CCP has selectively aligned with aspects of Jiān'ài, such as promoting equality and social welfare, while maintaining the importance of familial and national duties.
Key CCP Applications:
Social Welfare Programs:
Efforts to reduce poverty and promote equality reflect the inclusive ideals of Jiān'ài.
International Cooperation:
Policies emphasizing "win-win cooperation" in global development initiatives, such as the Belt and Road Initiative, echo the Mohist principle of mutual benefit.
Key Challenges:
Partiality in Practice:
The CCP’s emphasis on loyalty to the nation and party contrasts with the impartiality of Jiān'ài.
Pragmatism over Idealism:
While Jiān'ài seeks to eliminate favoritism, the CCP prioritizes practical policies that may favor specific groups, such as rural development initiatives targeting disadvantaged regions.
1. Anti-War Advocacy:
During the Warring States period, Mozi used Jiān'ài to argue against wars of conquest, proposing that impartial love and cooperation between states would prevent conflict.
2. Poverty Alleviation:
Modern CCP policies aimed at reducing income inequality align with the inclusive spirit of Jiān'ài, ensuring that all citizens benefit from national development.
3. Global Development Initiatives:
China’s emphasis on mutual benefit in global projects mirrors Jiān'ài, fostering international partnerships rather than exploitative relationships.
4. Education for All:
The CCP’s focus on universal education resonates with Jiān'ài, ensuring that opportunities are accessible regardless of background.
Emotional vs. Practical Love:
Americans may interpret Jiān'ài through a spiritual lens, whereas Mozi framed it as a rational and pragmatic approach to societal harmony.
Conflict with Hierarchy:
The Mohist critique of familial partiality may clash with Western ideals of balancing individual rights with familial bonds, creating misunderstandings about its implications.
Idealism vs. Pragmatism:
Americans might view Jiān'ài as overly idealistic, overlooking its utilitarian emphasis on preventing conflict and maximizing benefit.
While rarely implemented in its pure form, Jiān'ài reflects enduring Chinese values of harmony (和谐, Héxié) and collective well-being. It highlights an alternative vision of governance and ethics that prioritizes equality and cooperation over personal and familial loyalty. Although modern China selectively integrates aspects of Jiān'ài, the principle remains a powerful philosophical ideal that inspires debates about justice, equality, and social responsibility.